Selective interfacial mitigation of graphene defects

ABSTRACT

A method for the repair of defects in a graphene or other two-dimensional material through interfacial polymerization.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED PATENT APPLICATIONS

The present application is related to co-pending U.S. application Ser. No. ______, filed Apr. 14, 2016, titled “PERFORATED SHEETS OF GRAPHENE-BASED MATERIAL”, which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. The present application is related to co-pending U.S. application Ser. No. ______, filed Apr. 14, 2016, titled “PERFORATABLE SHEETS OF GRAPHENE-BASED MATERIAL”, which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. The present application is related to co-pending U.S. application Ser. No. ______, filed Apr. 14, 2016, titled “NANOPARTICLE MODIFICATION AND PERFORATION OF GRAPHENE”, which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety.

BACKGROUND

The present disclosure relates generally to the field of graphene based materials and other two-dimensional materials. More specifically, the present disclosure relates to method of repairing defects in graphene and two-dimensional materials.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Some embodiments relate to a method including disposing a first reactant on a first side of a two-dimensional material including defects, disposing a second reactant on a second side of the two-dimensional material such that the first reactant and second reactant undergo a polymerization reaction and form polymer regions filling the defects, and adhering the polymer regions to a support structure. The adhering the polymer regions to the support structure may include forming covalent bonds between the polymer regions and the support structure. The adhering the polymer regions to the support structure may include forming molecular entanglement between the polymer regions and the support structure. The method may further include adhering a polymer handling region formed along at least a portion of an edge of the two-dimensional material to the support structure. The two-dimensional material may include graphene. The support structure may be a porous support structure. The polymer regions may have a thickness in the range of 3 nm to 100 μm. The polymer regions may be biocompatible or bio-inert. The method may further include treating the support structure to enhance adhesion between the polymer regions and the support structure.

Some embodiments relate to a method including forming holes in a two-dimensional material including defects, disposing a first reactant on a first side of the two-dimensional material, disposing a second reactant on a second side of the two-dimensional material such that the first reactant and second reactant undergo a polymerization reaction and form polymer regions filling the defects and holes, and adhering the polymer regions to a support structure. The ratio of the area of the holes to the area of the two-dimensional material may be in the range of 5% to 50%. The polymer regions may have a thickness in the range of 3 nm to 100 μm. The holes may be randomly distributed across the two-dimensional material. The holes may be arranged in a periodic array.

Some embodiments relate to a method including forming pores in a two-dimensional material including defects, wherein the defects have a size greater than 15 nm, and the pores have a size that is less than the size of the defects, disposing a first reactant on a first side of the two-dimensional material, and disposing a second reactant on a second side of the two-dimensional material such that the first reactant and second reactant undergo a polymerization reaction and form polymer regions filling the defects. The pores are not filled by the polymer regions. At least one of the first reactant and the second reactant may include a dendrimer. The method may further include applying an electric potential to the two-dimensional material to attract the first reactant and the second reactant to the defects in the graphene material. The method may further include heating the first reactant and the second reactant to increase a rate of diffusion thereof and increase a rate of the polymerization reaction. The first reactant may be ionic, the second reactant may be ionic, and the first and second reactants may have opposite charges. The method may further include forming holes in the two-dimensional material with a size greater than the size of the pores, such that the holes are filled by polymer regions formed during the polymerization reaction.

Some embodiments relate to a method including disposing a first reactant on a first side of a two-dimensional material and extending beyond at least a portion of an edge of the two-dimensional material, disposing a second reactant on a second side of the two-dimensional material and extending beyond the at least a portion of the edge of the two-dimensional material. The first reactant and second reactant undergo a polymerization reaction and form a polymer handling region at least a portion of the edge of the two-dimensional material. The polymer handling region may extend along the entire circumference of the two-dimensional material. The polymer handling region may extend from the at least a portion of the edge of the two-dimensional material for a distance of at least about 1 mm. The polymer handling region may have a thickness in the range of 3 nm to 100 μm.

Some embodiments relate to a method including disposing a first reactant on a first side of the two-dimensional material containing defects, disposing a second reactant on a second side of the two-dimensional material such that the first reactant and second reactant undergo a polymerization reaction and form polymer regions filling the defects, and forming pores in the two-dimensional material by impacting the two-dimensional material with nanoparticles. The nanoparticles may have an energy of 2 keV to 500 keV per nanoparticle. The nanoparticles may have a size of 2 nm to 50 nm. The size of the pores may be from 1 nm to 100 nm. The fluence of the nanoparticles may be 1×10⁸ to 1×10¹² nanoparticles/cm². The two-dimensional material may include graphene.

Some embodiments relate to a method including forming pores in a two-dimensional material including defects by impacting the two-dimensional material with nanoparticles, disposing a first reactant on a first side of the two-dimensional material, and disposing a second reactant on a second side of the two-dimensional material such that the first reactant and second reactant undergo a polymerization reaction and form polymer regions filling the defects. The pores are not filled by the polymer regions. The nanoparticles may have an energy of 2 keV to 500 keV per nanoparticle. The nanoparticles may have a size of 2 nm to 50 nm. The size of the pores may be from 1 nm to 100 nm. The fluence of the nanoparticles may be 1×10⁸ to 1×10¹² nanoparticles/cm². The two-dimensional material may include graphene.

Some embodiments relate to a membrane assembly including a two-dimensional material including polymer regions that extend through defects in the two-dimensional material, and a support structure. The polymer regions are adhered to the support structure, and the polymer regions prevent fluid flow through the defects. The two-dimensional material may include graphene. The membrane assembly may be biocompatible or bio-inert. The polymer regions may have a thickness of 3 nm to 500 nm. The polymer regions may be adhered to the support structure through at least one of covalent bonds and molecular entanglement.

Some embodiments relate to a membrane including a two-dimensional material, and a polymer handling region extending along at least a portion of an edge of the two-dimensional material. The two-dimensional material may include graphene. The membrane may be biocompatible or bio-inert. The polymer handling region may form a continuous border along the entire circumference of the two-dimensional material. The polymer handling region may extend from the at least a portion of the edge of the two-dimensional material for a distance of at least about 1 mm.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a top down representation of a graphene material including repaired defects.

FIG. 2 is a cross-section of the graphene material of FIG. 1 along line A-A′.

FIG. 3 is a representation of a graphene material including defects and pores when exposed to a first reactant and a second reactant to repair the defects through interfacial polymerization.

FIG. 4 is a representation of the graphene material of FIG. 3 after the reactants have contacted each other through the defect.

FIG. 5 is the graphene material of FIG. 4 after the polymerization of the reactants forming a polymer region filling the defect.

FIG. 6 is a representation of a repaired graphene material, according to one embodiment.

FIG. 7 is a representation of a repaired graphene material, according to one embodiment.

FIG. 8 is a representation of a repaired graphene material, according to one embodiment.

FIG. 9 is a representation of a graphene material including a defect when exposed to a first reactant and a second reactant to repair the defect through interfacial polymerization.

FIG. 10 is a representation of the graphene material of FIG. 9 after the reactants have contacted each other through the defect.

FIG. 11 is a top down representation of a graphene material including pores, holes, and defects.

FIG. 12 is the graphene material of FIG. 11 after the holes and defects have been filled by interfacial polymerization.

FIG. 13 is a top down representation of a graphene material that has undergone interfacial polymerization to repair defects and form a polymer handling region.

FIG. 14 is a representation of a cross-section of a graphene material that has undergone interfacial polymerization to repair defects and form a polymer handling region, where the graphene material is adhered to a support.

FIG. 15 is a top down representation of an enclosure including a graphene material and a polymer handling region.

FIG. 16 is a cross-section of the enclosure of FIG. 15 along line B-B′.

FIG. 17 is a top down representation of a graphene material that includes holes formed therein arranged such that an in-situ grown support structure may be produced.

FIG. 18 is a top down representation of the graphene material of FIG. 17 after undergoing interfacial polymerization.

FIG. 19 is a representation of a cross-section of FIG. 18 along line C-C′.

FIG. 20 is a representation of a cross-section of a graphene material that has undergone interfacial polymerization to repair defects and form a polymer handling region, where the graphene material is adhered to a support such that the distance between the polymer regions on the support is less than the length of the graphene between the polymer regions.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Graphene based materials and other two-dimensional materials may have undesirable defects present therein. Defects, as utilized herein, are undesired openings formed in the graphene material. The presence of defects may render the graphene material unsuitable for filtration-type applications, as the defects may allow undesired molecules to pass through the material. In such applications, the presence of defects above a cutoff size or outside of a selected size range can be undesirable. On the other hand, defects below a critical size required for application-specific separation may be useful from a permeability perspective, as long as such defects do not negatively impact the integrity of the graphene. In some embodiments, defects may include holes, tears, slits, or any other shape or structure. Defects may be the result of manufacturing or handling the graphene material.

A process for repairing or mitigating the presence of defects in the graphene materials increases the utility of the materials as filtration or permeable membranes. The repair process may selectively produce a polymer material within the defects of the graphene material, preventing flow through the defects. The repair process may produce a graphene material 100 with polymer regions 110 that have filled defects in the graphene material, as shown in FIGS. 1 and 2. The polymer regions 110 are thin and may be a single layer of polymer molecules. As shown in FIG. 2, while the polymer regions 110 are thin, they are thicker than the graphene material 100. For example, a single layer of graphene may have a thickness of about 3.5 angstroms, while a polymer region including a single layer of polymer molecules may have a thickness of a few nanometers or more, depending on the polymer.

Graphene represents a form of carbon in which the carbon atoms reside within a single atomically thin sheet or a few layered sheets (e.g., about 20 or less) of fused six-membered rings forming an extended sp²-hybridized carbon planar lattice. Graphene-based materials include, but are not limited to, single layer graphene, multilayer graphene or interconnected single or multilayer graphene domains and combinations thereof. As utilized herein, graphene material may refer to graphene or a graphene-based material. In some embodiments, graphene-based materials also include materials which have been formed by stacking single or multilayer graphene sheets. In some embodiments, multilayer graphene includes 2 to 20 layers, 2 to 10 layers or 2 to 5 layers. In some embodiments, layers of multilayered graphene are stacked, but are less ordered in the z direction (perpendicular to the basal plane) than a thin graphite crystal.

In some embodiments, a sheet of graphene-based material is a sheet of single or multilayer graphene or a sheet comprising a plurality of interconnected single or multilayer graphene domains. In some embodiments, the multilayer graphene domains have 2 to 5 layers or 2 to 10 layers. As used herein, a “domain” refers to a region of a material where atoms are uniformly ordered into a crystal lattice. A domain is uniform within its boundaries, but different from a neighboring region. For example, a single crystalline material has a single domain of ordered atoms. In some embodiments, at least some of the graphene domains are nanocrystals, having a domain size from 1 nm to 100 nm, such as 10 nm to 100 nm. In some embodiments, at least some of the graphene domains have a domain size greater than 100 nm to 1 micron, or from 200 nm to 800 nm, or from 300 nm to 500 nm. In some embodiments, a domain of multilayer graphene may overlap a neighboring domain. “Grain boundaries” formed by crystallographic defects at edges of each domain differentiate between neighboring crystal lattices. In some embodiments, a first crystal lattice may be rotated relative to a second crystal lattice, by a rotation about an axis perpendicular to the plane of a sheet, such that the two lattices differ in “crystal lattice orientation.”

In some embodiments, the sheet of graphene-based material is a sheet of single or multilayer graphene or a combination thereof. In some other embodiments, the sheet of graphene-based material is a sheet comprising a plurality of interconnected single or multilayer graphene domains. The interconnected domains may be covalently bonded together to form the sheet. When the domains in a sheet differ in crystal lattice orientation, the sheet may be considered polycrystalline.

In some embodiments, the thickness of the sheet of graphene-based material is from 0.3 nm to 10 nm, such as from 0.34 nm to 10 nm, from 0.34 nm to 5 nm, or from 0.34 nm to 3 nm. In some embodiments, the thickness may include both single layer graphene and non-graphenic carbon.

In some embodiments, graphene is the dominant material in a graphene-based material. For example, a graphene-based material may comprise at least 20% graphene, such as at least 30% graphene, at least 40% graphene, at least 50% graphene, at least 60% graphene, at least 70% graphene, at least 80% graphene, at least 90% graphene, at least 95% graphene, or more. In some embodiments, a graphene-based material may comprise a graphene content range selected from 30% to 100%, such as from 30% to 95%, such as from 40% to 80%, from 50% to 70%, from 60% to 95%, or from 75% to 100%. In some embodiments, the amount of graphene in the graphene-based material is measured as an atomic percentage. The amount of graphene in the graphene-based material is measured as an atomic percentage utilizing known methods including transmission electron microscope examination or, alternatively, if TEM is ineffective, another similar measurement technique.

In some embodiments, a sheet of graphene-based material may further comprise non-graphenic carbon-based material located on at least one surface of the sheet of graphene-based material. In an embodiment, the sheet is defined by two base surfaces (e.g. top and bottom faces of the sheet) and side faces (e.g. the side faces of the sheet). In some embodiments, non-graphenic carbon-based material is located on one or both base surfaces of the sheet. In some embodiments, the sheet of graphene-based material includes a small amount of one or more other materials on the surface, such as, but not limited to, one or more dust particles or similar contaminants.

In some embodiments, the amount of non-graphenic carbon-based material is less than the amount of graphene. In some other embodiments, the amount of non-graphenic carbon material is three to five times the amount of graphene; this may be measured in terms of mass. In additional embodiments, the non-graphenic carbon material is characterized by a percentage by mass of said graphene-based material selected from the range of 0% to 80%. In some embodiments, the surface coverage of the sheet of non-graphenic carbon-based material is greater than zero and less than 80%, such as from 5% to 80%, from 10% to 80%, from 5% to 50%, or from 10% to 50%. This surface coverage may be measured with transmission electron microscopy. In some embodiments, the amount of graphene in the graphene-based material is from 60% to 95% or from 75% to 100%. The amount of graphene in the graphene-based material is measured as mass percentage utilizing known methods preferentially using transmission electron microscope examination or, alternatively, if TEM is ineffective, using other similar techniques.

In some embodiments, the non-graphenic carbon-based material does not possess long range order and may be classified as amorphous. The non-graphenic carbon-based material may further comprise elements other than carbon and/or hydrocarbons. In some embodiments, non-carbon elements which may be incorporated in the non-graphenic carbon include hydrogen, oxygen, silicon, copper, and iron. In further embodiments, the non-graphenic carbon-based material comprises hydrocarbons. In some embodiments, carbon is the dominant material in non-graphenic carbon-based material. For example, a non-graphenic carbon-based material may comprise at least 30% carbon, such as at least 40% carbon, at least 50% carbon, at least 60% carbon, at least 70% carbon, at least 80% carbon, at least 90% carbon, or at least 95% carbon. In some embodiments, a non-graphenic carbon-based material comprises a range of carbon selected from 30% to 95%, such as from 40% to 80%, or from 50% to 70%. The amount of carbon in the non-graphenic carbon-based material may be measured as an atomic percentage utilizing known methods preferentially using transmission electron microscope examination or, alternatively, if TEM is ineffective, using other similar techniques.

In some embodiments, the graphene material may be in the form of a macroscale sheet. As used herein, a macroscale sheet may be observable by the naked eye. In some embodiments, at least one lateral dimension of the macroscopic sheet may be greater than 1 mm, such as greater than 5 mm, greater than 1 cm, or greater than 3 cm. In some embodiments, the macroscopic sheet may be larger than a flake obtained by exfoliation. For example, the macroscopic sheet may have a lateral dimension greater than about 1 micrometer. In some embodiments, the lateral dimension of the macroscopic sheet may be less than 10 cm. In some embodiments, the macroscopic sheet may have a lateral dimension of from 10 nm to 10 cm, such as from 1 mm to 10 cm. As used herein, a lateral dimension is generally perpendicular to the thickness of the sheet.

As used herein, the term “two-dimensional material” may refer to any extended planar structure of atomic thickness, including both single- and multi-layer variants thereof. Multi-layer two-dimensional materials may include up to about 20 stacked layers. In some embodiments, a two-dimensional material suitable for the present structures and methods can include any material having an extended planar molecular structure and an atomic level thickness. Particular examples of two-dimensional materials include graphene films, graphene-based material, transition metal dichalcogenides, metal oxides, metal hydroxides, graphene oxide, a-boron nitride, silicone, germanene, or other materials having a similar planar structure. Specific examples of transition metal dichalcogenides include molybdenum disulfide and niobium diselenide. Specific examples of metal oxides include vanadium pentoxide. Graphene or graphene-based films according to the embodiments herein can include single-layer or multi-layer films, or any combination thereof. Choice of a suitable two-dimensional material can be determined by a number of factors, including the chemical and physical environment into which the graphene, graphene-based material or other two-dimensional material is to be terminally deployed, ease of perforating the two-dimensional material, and the like. The processes and structures disclosed herein with respect to graphene materials are also applicable to two-dimensional materials.

Pores as described herein may be sized to provide desired selective permeability of a species (atom, molecule, protein, virus, cell, etc.) for a given application. Selective permeability relates to the propensity of a porous material or a perforated two-dimensional material to allow passage (or transport) of one or more species more readily or faster than other species. Selective permeability allows separation of species which exhibit different passage or transport rates. In two-dimensional materials selective permeability correlates to the dimension or size (e.g., diameter) of apertures and the relative effective size of the species. Selective permeability of the perforations in two-dimensional materials such as graphene-based materials can also depend on functionalization of perforations (if any) and the specific species that are to be separated. Separation of two or more species in a mixture includes a change in the ratio(s) (weight or molar ratio) of the two or more species in the mixture after passage of the mixture through a perforated two-dimensional material.

In some embodiments, a characteristic size of the pores may be from 0.3 nm to 500 nm, such as from 0.3 nm to 10 nm, from 1 nm to 10 nm, from 5 nm to 10 nm, from 5 nm to 20 nm, from 10 nm to 50 nm, from 50 nm to 100 nm, from 50 nm to 150 nm, from 100 nm to 200 nm, or from 100 nm to 500 nm. The characteristics size may refer to the average pore size. In some embodiments, from 70% to 99%, such as from 80% to 99%, from 85% to 99%, or from 90% to 99%, of the pores in a sheet or layer fall within a specified range, and the remaining pores fall outside the specified range.

The size distribution of the pores may be narrow, e.g., limited to 0.1 to 0.5 coefficient of variation. For circular pores, the characteristic dimension may be the diameter of the hole. For non-circular pores, the characteristic dimension may be the largest distance spanning the hole, the smallest distance spanning the hole, the average of the largest and smallest distance spanning the hole, or an equivalent diameter based on the in-plane area of the pore.

Quantitative image analysis of pore features may include measurement of the number, area, size and/or perimeter of pores. In some embodiments, the equivalent diameter of each pore is calculated from the equation A=πd²/4, where d is the equivalent diameter of the pore and A is the area of the pore. When the pore area is plotted as a function of equivalent pore diameter, a pore size distribution may be obtained. The coefficient of variation of the pore size may be calculated herein as the ratio of the standard deviation of the pore size to the mean of the pore size.

In some embodiments, the ratio of the area of the pores to the area of the sheet is used to characterize the sheet. The area of the sheet may be taken as the planar area spanned by the sheet. In some embodiments, characterization may be based on the ratio of the area of the perforations to the sheet area excluding features such as surface debris. In some additional embodiments, characterization may be based on the ratio of the area of the pores to a suspended area of the sheet. In some embodiments, the pore area may comprises 0.1% or greater, such as 1% or greater, or 5% or greater of the sheet area. In some embodiments, the pore are may comprise less than 15% of the sheet area, such as less than 10% of the sheet area. In some embodiments, the pore area may comprise from 0.1% to 15% of the sheet area, such as from 1% to 15% of the sheet area, from 5% to 15% of the sheet area, or from 1% to 10% of the sheet area. In some embodiments, the pores may be located over greater than 10%, such as greater than 15% of the area, of a sheet of graphene-based material. In some embodiments, the pore density may be from 2 pores pre nm² to 1 pore per μm².

The defect repair process includes the application of a first reactant to a first side of the graphene material and a second reactant to a second side of the graphene material. As shown in FIG. 9, molecules of the first reactant material 210 are disposed on a first side of the graphene material 100 and molecules of the second reactant material 220 are disposed on a second side of the graphene material 100. A defect 112 in the graphene material 100 allows the first reactant 210 to contact the second reactant 220 as shown in FIG. 10. The first reactant 210 and the second reactant 220 may pass through any defect 112 with a size larger than the reactant molecules. The interaction between the first reactant 210 and the second reactant 220 produces a polymerization reaction and forms a polymer 110 in the defect. As shown in FIG. 6, the polymerization reaction may continue until the polymer 110 fills the defect and the first reactant 210 and second reactant 220 are no longer able to pass through the defect and interact. The thickness of the polymer region may depend on the type of polymer employed and the reaction conditions. In some embodiments the thickness of the polymer region may be greater than a few nanometers, such as greater than 3 nm, greater than 10 nm, greater than 25 nm, greater than 50 nm, greater than 100 nm, greater than 1 μm, greater than 10 μm, greater than 100 μm, or more. In some embodiments, the polymer regions may have a thickness in the range of 3 nm to 100 μm, such as from 10 nm to 50 μm, or from 10 nm to 500 nm.

The first reactant may be any reactant capable of producing a polymer when in contact with the second reactant. The first reactant may be provided in the form of a liquid solution or suspension. In some embodiments the first reactant may be a monomer or oligomer. The monomer or oligomer may include a diamine, such as hexamethylene diamine, or a polystyrene monomer. The first reactant may be biocompatible or bio-inert.

The second reactant may be any reactant capable of producing a polymer when in contact with the first reactant. The second reactant may be provided in the form of a liquid solution, liquid suspension, gas, or plasma. The second reactant may be a monomer, an oligomer, or a catalyst that initiates polymerization. In some embodiments the second reactant may be a dicarboxylic acid, such as hexanedioic acid. In some embodiments the second reactant may be a polymerization catalyst, such as azobisisobutyronitrile (AIBN). The second reactant may be provided in an aqueous solution or an oil based solution. The second reactant may be biocompatible or bio-inert.

In some embodiments, the reactants may be selected from monomers or oligomers that include any of the following functional groups: hydroxyl, ether, ketone, carboxyl, aldehyde, amine, or combinations thereof. The monomers or oligomers may be selected from any appropriate species that includes a functional group capable of reacting with a counterpart reactant to produce a polymer.

In some embodiments, the reactants may be selected to produce a step or condensation polymerization. A step or condensation polymerization reaction is self-limiting, as once the defects are filled such that the reactants can no longer pass through the defect the polymerization reaction will cease due to a lack of reactants. The self-limiting nature of the step or condensation polymerization reaction allows the defects in the graphene material to be fully repaired without concern that polymer formation will continue until pores and desired fluid flow channels are blocked.

In some embodiments, the reactants may be selected to produce an addition or chain polymerization reaction. To produce an addition or chain polymerization one of the reactants may be a monomer, oligomer, or polymer and the second reactant may be an initiator. The addition or chain polymerization reaction may continue until the reaction is quenched or the reactant supply is exhausted. In practice, the extent of the addition or chain polymerization may be controlled by quenching the reaction after a predetermined time that is selected to ensure that sufficient repair of the defects in the graphene material has occurred. In some embodiments, the quenching of the reaction may be achieved by introducing a quenching reagent, such as oxygen, to the reaction system. An addition or chain polymerization reaction may be useful in applications where it is desirable for the polymer to be formed in areas beyond the immediate defects of the graphene material. The ability to form more extensive polymer regions allows the interfacial polymerization process to produce polymer regions with additional functionality, such as providing adhesion enhancements, mechanical reinforcement, or chemical functionalization. An exemplary reactant pair for an addition or chain polymerization may be an AIBN aqueous solution and a vapor phase polystyrene.

The polymer formed during the repair process may be any appropriate polymer. In some embodiments, the polymers formed utilizing a step or condensation polymerization reaction may include polyamide, polyimide, polyester, polyurethane, polysiloxane, phenolic resin, epoxy, melamine, polyacetal, polycarbonate, and co-polymers thereof. The polymers formed utilizing an addition or chain polymerization reaction may include polyacrylonitrile, polystyrene, poly(methyl methacrylate), poly(vinyl acetate), or co-polymers thereof. In some embodiments, the polymer formed during the repair process may be a biocompatible or bio-inert polymer. In some embodiments, the polymer formed during the repair process may be semipermeable, such that some materials or molecules may diffuse through the polymer regions that fill the defects. In some embodiments, the polymer may be porous or non-porous.

In some embodiments the first reactant and the second reactant may have a size larger than a desired pore size of the graphene material. The use of reactants with such a size allows for the selective repair of only those defects that have a size greater than the desired pore size, as the reactants are unable to pass through the defects and pores with a size less than the desired pore size of the graphene material. The size of a defect, as utilized herein, may refer to the effective diameter of the defect. The effective diameter of a defect is the diameter of the largest spherical particle that will pass through the defect. The effective diameter may be measured by any appropriate method, such as imaging with a scanning electron microscope and then calculating the effective diameter of the defect. The size of a reactant, as utilized herein, may refer to the effective diameter of the reactant. In some embodiments, the effective diameter of the reactant may be the diameter of a sphere that is capable of passing through the same openings that the reactant can pass through. In some embodiments, the effective diameter of polymeric materials may refer to the diameter of gyration, with the diameter of gyration being twice the radius of gyration.

In some embodiments, a reactant with a large size may be a dendrimer. In some embodiments, the dendrimers may include a surface containing any of the functional groups described herein for the reactants. For example, the dendrimers may include hydroxyl, amine, sulfonic acid, carboxylic acid, or quaternary ammonium functional groups on the surface thereof. The large reactants may have a size of at least about 15 nm, such as at least about 20 nm, about 25 nm, about 30 nm, about 40 nm, about 50 nm, about 75 nm, about 100 nm, about 125 nm, or more. In some embodiments, a reactant with a large size may be a reactant with a diameter of gyration that is equivalent to the effective diameter of the smallest defect targeted for repair. Exemplary reactants of this type may include high molecular weight polymers with end groups including the functional groups described above for the reactants. In some embodiments, a large reactant may be an ionic polymer, where the first and second reactants are selected to have opposite charges.

As shown in FIGS. 3 and 4, the graphene material 100 may include defects 112 and pores 114. The use of a first reactant material 210 and a second reactant material 220 with a size greater than the size of the pores 114 prevents the reactant molecules from passing through and polymerizing in the pores 114. The first reactant material 210 and the second reactant material 220 pass through and polymerize in the defects 112. In this manner, the interfacial polymerization repair process is capable of selectively repairing only those defects having a size that is greater than a desired pore size. As shown in FIG. 5, after the repair process the defects are filled by a polymer region 110, while the pores 114 are open and allow the passage of fluid there through.

In some embodiments the first reactant material and the second reactant material are provided in forms that allow the manner in which the reactants diffuse into each other to be controlled. The way in which the reactants interact influences the location of the polymer produced by the polymerization. In some embodiments the reactants are provided in a form that does not allow significant amounts of diffusion of either reactant in to the other, which produces a polymer region that has a midpoint that substantially aligns with the graphene material, as shown in FIG. 6. The reactants may be provided in solutions that are immiscible with each other, such that the interface between the solutions is maintained along the plane of the graphite material. The immiscible solutions may be any appropriate combination, such as an aqueous solution and an oil-based solution. In some embodiments the diffusion of the reactants in to the other reactant solution may be prevented by selecting reactants that are not soluble in the solvent forming the other solution. For example, a first reactant that is not soluble in oil may be provided in an aqueous solution and a second reactant that is not soluble in water may be provided in an oil solution, producing limited or no diffusion of the reactants to the counterpart solution. In some embodiments, the first reactant and second reactant may be selected such that one of the reactants is cationic and the second reactant is anionic.

In some embodiments the reactants may be selected such that one of the reactants is capable of diffusing readily into the other reactant. As shown in FIG. 7, the first reactant material 210 may be selected such that the second reactant material 220 diffuses therein, producing a polymer 110 that is located substantially on the side of the graphene material 100 that the first reactant is disposed on. A similar effect may be produced when the first reactant is a liquid solution and the second reactant is a gas, such that the first reactant does not diffuse in to the gas of the second reactant.

In some embodiments the second reactant material 220 may be selected such that the first reactant material 210 diffuses in the second reactant material 220. A reactant system of this type produces a polymer 110 that is located substantially on the side of the graphene material 100 on which the second reactant material 220 is disposed, as shown in FIG. 8.

In some embodiments, the interaction of the reactants through the defects in the graphene material may be the result of diffusion. In some embodiments, the reactants may be heated to increase the diffusion thereof and the likelihood that the reactants will interact. In some other embodiments, the reactants may be ionic, with the first and second reactants having opposite charges. The opposite charges of the ionic polymers produces an attraction between the reactants, ensuring that the reactants interact across the defects of the graphene material to produce a polymer. In some embodiments, electrophoresis may be employed to facilitate interaction between ionic and polar reactants. In some embodiments, the reactants may have a dipole, such that an electric or magnetic field may be applied to the reactants to drive motion of the reactants in the system and produce interaction between the reactants. In some embodiments, an electrical potential may be applied across the graphene material, attracting the reactants to the surface thereof and enhancing interaction between the reactants.

The polymer regions formed in the defects may be attached to the graphene material by any suitable interaction. In some embodiments, the polymer regions may be attached to the graphene material through mechanical interaction. One example of mechanical interaction occurs includes a polymer region formed such that the portion of the polymer region in plane with the graphene material is has a smaller dimension than the portions of the polymer region formed on either side of the graphene material. The larger ends of the polymer region mechanically interact with the graphene material to prevent the polymer region from being pulled out of the defect. In some embodiments, the graphene material and the polymer region may be attached by Van der Waals attraction.

In some embodiments, the graphene material may be functionalized to produce covalent or non-covalent interactions between the graphene material and the polymer regions. In some embodiments, the graphene material may be rendered hydrophobic or hydrophilic by treating the graphene material before forming the polymer regions, such that the interaction between the graphene material and the polymer region is strengthened. In some embodiments, the graphene material may be treated to form functional groups, such as hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxylic, or amine groups. The functionalization may be achieved through any appropriate process, such as oxidation of the graphene material. In some embodiments, the graphene material may be oxidized by thermal treatment, ultraviolet oxidation, plasma treatment, sulfuric acid treatment, nitric acid treatment, or permanganate treatment. In some embodiments, the graphene material may be aminated by ammonia treatment. The oxidation may be limited to the area of the graphene material containing defects, as the chemical bonds of the graphene material are generally more reactive in the areas adjacent to defects than in the basal plane. The functional groups produced by the treatment of the graphene material may form covalent bonds with the polymer regions, such that the polymer regions are attached to the graphene material by the covalent bonds.

The reactants may be selected such that the produced polymer is capable of adhering to a support over which the graphene material may be disposed. In some embodiments, graphene materials do not covalently bond to support materials, thus by selecting a polymer material to repair defects in the graphene material that will adhere to a support structure the adhesion of the repaired graphene material to the support structure may be improved. The increased adhesion may be demonstrated by immersing the sample in a solvent that does not attack the polymer regions or the support structure and agitating the sample. In some embodiments, the increased adhesion may be demonstrated by applying a back pressure to the support structure side of the graphene material, and measuring the delamination/rupture pressure. The materials exhibiting improved adhesion have a higher delamination/rupture pressure than graphene materials that lack the polymer regions.

The support structure may be any appropriate structure that supports the graphene material without hindering the desired applications of the graphene material, such as filtration or selective permeability. The support structure may be a polymer material, such as a polycarbonate material. In the case that the support is a polycarbonate material, the polymer may be an epoxy. The support may be a porous material, such that the graphene material is supported while also allowing fluid to flow to and through the graphene material.

A porous material that may be useful as a support structure for the graphene material may include one or more selected from ceramics and thin film polymers. In some embodiments, ceramic porous materials may include silica, silicon, silicon nitride, and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the porous material may include track-etched polymers, expanded polymers, patterned polymers, non-woven polymers, woven polymers, and combinations thereof.

The support structure may include a polymer selected from the group consisting of polysulfones, polyurethane, polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), polyethylene glycol (PEG), polylactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA), PLA, PGA, polyamides (such as nylon-6,6, supramid and nylamid), polyimides, polypropylene, polyethersulfones (PES), polyvinylidine fluoride (PVDF), cellulose acetate, polyethylene, polypropylene, polycarbonate, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) (such as Teflon), polyvinylchloride (PVC), polyether ether ketone (PEEK), mixtures and block co-polymers of any of these, and combinations and/or mixtures thereof. In some embodiments, the polymers are biocompatible, bioinert and/or medical grade materials.

The repaired graphene material may be adhered to the support structure material by placing the repaired graphene material in contact with the support structure material. In some embodiments, the support structure may be treated to promote adhesion to the polymer regions of the repaired graphene material. The adhesion promoting treatment may include any appropriate process, such as subjecting the surface of the support structure to ultra violet oxidation. As shown in FIG. 14, the graphene material 400 may be separated from the support structure material 450 by a gap as a result of the thickness and location of the polymer regions 412 repairing the defects and polymer handling region 440. The size of the gap may be controlled by altering the location of the polymer regions formed during the repair process, as described above.

The increase in adhesion of the repaired graphene material to the support structure is a function of the proportion of polymer regions in the repaired graphene material. In some embodiments, a minimum amount of polymer regions, and thereby adhesion, may be ensured by forming holes in the graphene layer before the repair process. As utilized herein, holes refer to openings purposefully formed in the graphene material that will be plugged by the polymer material during the repair process. In some embodiments, the holes may fall within the defect classification, as they are undesired in the repaired membrane material. In some embodiments, the holes may have any appropriate size, such as any of the sizes of the pores described herein. In some embodiments, the holes may have a size that is greater than the desired pore size, such that the holes may be filled during the repair process and the pores may remain open.

The holes may be formed in the graphene material by any appropriate process, such as ion bombardment, chemical reaction, nanoparticle impacting or mechanical cutting. In some embodiments, the holes may be formed by any of the processes described herein for the formation of pores in the material. The holes may be arranged in a periodic array with a predetermined pattern and spacing across the surface of the graphene material. As shown in FIG. 11, the holes may be arranged in a plurality of rows, with a defined spacing between holes within each row, and a defined spacing between rows. The spacing of the holes in the rows may be the same in multiple rows, or different in each row. The spacing between the rows may be uniform, such that the spacing between each adjacent pair of rows is the same, or varied, such that the spacing between pairs of adjacent rows may be different. In some embodiments, the spacing of the holes in adjacent rows may be in phase, such that the holes in adjacent rows are aligned, as shown in FIG. 11. In some other embodiments, the spacing of the holes in the rows may be out of phase, such that the holes in adjacent rows are not aligned. In some embodiments, the holes may be arranged in a repeating pattern. In some embodiments, the holes may have a random distribution across the surface of the graphene material.

In some embodiments, the holes may be formed such that the holes account for at least about 5% of the area of the graphene material before repair, such as at least about 10%, about 15%, about 20%, about 25%, about 30%, about 40%, or more. In some embodiments, the holes may have an area of less than about 50% of the area of the graphene material before repair, such as less than about 45%, about 40%, about 35%, about 30%, about 25%, about 20%, or less. The minimum area of the holes of the graphene material may be selected such that the polymer regions of the repaired graphene material produce at least a desired degree of adhesion between the repaired graphene material and the support structure.

The adhesion between the repaired graphene material and the support structure produces a graphene membrane assembly. The adhesion between the polymer regions of the repaired graphene material and the support structure may include Van der Waals forces, chemical bonds, molecular entanglement, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the polymer of the polymer regions may include polar a group, such as a hydroxyl, carbonyl, amine, epoxide, or combinations thereof, that exhibits stronger Van der Waals attraction to the support structure than the graphene material. In some embodiments, the polymer of the polymer regions may include functional groups or side chains that readily react with the support structure to form chemical bonds. The chemical bonding between the polymer regions and the support structure may be initiated by any appropriate process, such as exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation, thermal treatment, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the polymer molecules of the polymer regions may be entangled with polymer molecules of the support structure. The molecular entanglement may be produced by thermal treatment of the graphene membrane assembly, such that the polymer of the polymer region and the support structure are softened without degrading. In such applications, the polymer of the polymer region and the polymer of the support structure may be selected to have similar thermal properties, such that both polymers are softened sufficiently at the treatment temperature to produce entanglement of the polymer molecules. The graphene membrane assembly exhibits improved performance and service life when compared to a graphene membrane without polymer adhesion regions disposed on support structures.

In some embodiments, the polymer regions may be adhered to a support structure in a manner that increases the surface area of the graphene material provided on the support structure. As shown in FIG. 20, polymer regions 512 of a repaired graphene material may be adhered to a support structure 550 such that the graphene material 500 forms folds, drapes, or bends that increase the available surface area of the graphene material. The increased surface area may be produced by adhering the polymer regions 512 to the support structure 550 such that the distance between the polymer regions on the support structure is less than the length of the graphene material between the polymer regions. The graphene material may then fold or bend to accommodate the shorter distance between the polymer regions, and produce an increased graphene surface area for a given support structure area. In some embodiments, the folds, drapes, or bends may be formed by performing the repair process in a solvent that induces swelling in the polymer, and then exchanging the solvent for another solvent that does not swell the polymer. The resulting shrinkage of the polymer regions may relax the graphene and create folds, drapes, or bends therein. In some embodiments, the polymer regions may be softened by heating to relieve stress in the polymer material, creating folds, drapes, or bends in the graphene material. In some embodiments, movements of the repaired graphene material that includes the polymer regions may produce the folds, drapes, or bends in the graphene material.

In some embodiments, the support structure may be formed in situ during the repair process. To create the in situ support structure, holes may be formed in the graphene material in a pattern and spacing that will result in an interconnected polymer layer, while still maintaining an area of the graphene material sufficient to allow the desired performance of the graphene material. The holes may be produced utilizing any of the procedures described herein, and with any of the shapes and sizes described herein. The holes may be formed in any appropriate pattern, and with any appropriate size. In some embodiments, the holes may be formed in linear arrangements such that the distance between the holes is significantly smaller than the size of the holes. The holes may be arranged in lines, circles, squares, or any other appropriate pattern. As shown in FIG. 17, the holes 710 may be formed in the graphene material 700 in a series of lines, where the spacing between the holes within the lines is small in comparison to the size of the holes. The polymer may grow beyond the beyond the borders of the holes, such that the formed polymer regions associated with each hole fuse or merge together, producing a substantially continuous support structure. As shown in FIG. 18, the in situ formed polymer support structure may include a polymer handling region 740 fused with the polymer regions 712 formed in the holes. The extent to which the polymer regions extend beyond the borders of the holes is illustrated in FIG. 19, which shows that portions of the polymer regions filling the holes 712 and/or polymer handling regions 740 may extend over portions of the graphene material 700 to fuse and form a substantially continuous in situ support structure.

The in situ support structure may resemble a porous polymer layer, with the graphene material extending across the pores in the support structure. In some embodiments, the in situ support structure may be produced by disposing a porous layer over the graphene membrane prior to forming the in situ support structure, and removing the porous layer after the formation of the in situ support to form fluid flow channels in the in situ support. The porous layer may be a mesh, such as a polymer mesh. The removal of the porous layer may be achieved by any appropriate process, such as dissolving the porous layer. In some embodiments, the graphene material employed in the formation of the in situ support structure may be free of defects other than the holes produced for the purpose of forming the in situ support structure.

In some embodiments, the repair process may be extended to produce a polymer handling region attached to the graphene material. The polymer handling region 440 may form a frame around the graphene material 400 as shown in FIG. 13. The polymer handling region 440 may be formed in the same process and at the same time as the polymer regions 412 that repair defects in the graphene material 400. The polymer handling region may be produced by extending the first reactant and the second reactant beyond the edges of the graphene material, such that the first and second reactants form a polymer extending from the edge of the graphene material. The polymer handling region allows the repaired graphene material to be handled more easily, as the polymer handling region may be more damage resistant than the graphene material. Additionally, the polymer handling region allows the repaired graphene material to be manipulated without directly contacting the graphene material, reducing the opportunity for defects to form in the graphene material after the repair process. In some embodiments, the repair process may be utilized to form a polymer handling region on a graphene material that is free of defects.

The polymer handling region may have any appropriate size and geometry. As shown in FIG. 13, the polymer handling region 440 may be in the form of a substantially continuous border that extends along the circumference of the graphene material 400. The polymer handling region may extend for a distance of at least about 1 mm from the edge of the graphene material, such as at least about 2 mm, about 5 mm, about 1 cm, about 2 cm, about 5 cm, or more. The polymer handling region may have a thickness on the same scale as the polymer regions that plug defects in the graphene material described herein. In some embodiments, the polymer handling region has the same thickness as the polymer regions that plug defects in the graphene material. In some embodiments, the polymer handling region may extend along at least a portion of an edge of the graphene region, such as along one or more edges of the graphene material.

In some embodiments, the polymer handling region 440 may also function as a sealing region that prevents fluid from flowing around the edges of the graphene material. The polymer handling region may be adhered and sealed to a support structure 450, as shown in FIG. 14. In some embodiments, the polymer handling region may be utilized to mount the graphene material in a device or test fixture. The polymer handling region 642 of a first repaired graphene material 602 may be sealed to the polymer handling region 644 of a second repaired graphene material 604 to form a graphene enclosure or envelope, as shown in FIGS. 15 and 16. The graphene enclosure or envelope forms an interior volume 670 that is defined by the first graphene material 602 and the second graphene material 604.

The polymer repair process may be conducted before or after forming pores in the graphene material. In cases where the pores are formed in the graphene material before the repair process, the repair process may employ reactants with a size selected to repair only defects greater in size than the desired pores, as described above. In this manner the desired pores are maintained in the repaired graphene material, while defects larger than the desired pore size are repaired with a polymer region. Performing the repair process after forming the pores allows for pore forming procedure that results in a less controlled pore size to be employed, as pores formed that are larger than the desired size will be repaired. Additionally, defects may be formed in the graphene material during the pore forming process and repairing the graphene material after the pore forming process prevent defects formed in the pore forming process from being present in the finished material. This produces a graphene material with more uniform pore sizes.

In some embodiments, the process of producing a perforated graphene material may include forming pores in a graphene material, forming holes in the graphene material to increase adhesion of the graphene material to a substrate, and repairing the graphene material utilizing an interfacial polymerization process. After forming the pores and holes and before repairing the graphene material, the graphene material 300 includes pores 330, holes 310 and defects 320, as shown in FIG. 11. After repairing the graphene material, the graphene material 300 includes pores 330, polymer regions filling the defects 322, and polymer regions filling the holes 312, as shown in FIG. 12. The repaired graphene material may be free of defects and holes that are larger than the desired pore size. The forming of the holes in the graphene material is an optional step, and may not be performed where an increase in adhesion between the graphene material and a substrate is not desired. For example, a process without the formation of holes may produce a graphene material 400 that includes pores 430, a polymer region filling defects 412, and a polymer handling region 440.

In some embodiments the graphene material may be produced by repairing defects in the graphene material with interfacial polymerization and forming pores in the material by any appropriate process. In some embodiments, pores may be formed in the graphene material by ultraviolet oxidation, plasma treatment, ion irradiation, or nanoparticle bombardment. The pore formation may occur before or after the repair of the graphene material.

Ion-based perforation processes may include methods in which the graphene-based material is irradiated with a directional ion source. In some embodiments, the ion source is collimated. The ion source may be a broad field or flood ion source. A broad field or flood ion source can provide an ion flux which is significantly reduced compared to a focused ion beam. The ion source inducing perforation of the graphene or other two-dimensional material in embodiments of the present disclosure is considered to provide a broad ion field, also commonly referred to as an ion flood source. In some embodiments, the ion flood source does not include focusing lenses. In some embodiments, the ion source may be operated at less than atmospheric pressure, such as at 10⁻³ to 10⁻⁵ torr or 10⁻⁴ to 10⁻⁶ torr. The environment may also contain background amounts (e.g. on the order of 10⁻⁵ torr) of oxygen (O₂), nitrogen (N₂) or carbon dioxide (CO₂). The ion beam may be perpendicular to the surface of the layer(s) of the material (incidence angle of 0 degrees) or the incidence angle may be from 0 to 45 degrees, 0 to 20 degrees, 0 to 15 degrees or 0 to 10 degrees. In some embodiments, exposure to ions does not include exposure to a plasma.

Ultraviolet oxidation based perforation processes may include methods in which the graphene-based material is simultaneously exposed to ultraviolet (UV) light and an oxygen containing gas. Ozone may be generated by exposure of an oxygen containing gas such as oxygen or air to the UV light. Ozone may also be supplied by an ozone generator device. In some embodiments, the UV oxidation based perforation method further includes exposure of the graphene-based material to atomic oxygen. Suitable wavelengths of UV light may include, but are not limited to, wavelengths below 300 nm, such as from 150 nm to 300 nm. In some embodiments, the intensity of the UV light may be from 10 to 100 mW/cm² at 6 mm distance or 100 to 1000 mW/cm² at 6 mm distance. For example, suitable UV light may be emitted by mercury discharge lamps (e.g. a wavelength of about 185 nm to 254 nm). In some embodiments, UV oxidation is performed at room temperature or at a temperature greater than room temperature. In some embodiments, UV oxidation may be performed at atmospheric pressure (e.g. 1 atm) or under vacuum.

In some embodiments, the pores may be formed by nanoparticle bombardment. Nanoparticle bombardment may employ a nanoparticle beam or a cluster beam. In some embodiments, the beam is collimated or is not collimated. Furthermore, the beam need not be highly focused. In some embodiments, a plurality of the nanoparticles or clusters is singly charged. In additional embodiments, the nanoparticles comprise from 500 to 250,000 atoms, such as from 500 to 5,000 atoms.

A variety of metal particles are suitable for use in the methods of the present disclosure. For example, nanoparticles of Al, Ag, Au, Ti, Cu and nanoparticles comprising Al, Ag, Au, Ti, Cu are suitable. Metal NPs can be generated in a number of ways including magnetron sputtering and liquid metal ion sources (LMIS). Methods for generation of nanoparticles are further described in Cassidy, Cathal, et al. “Inoculation of silicon nanoparticles with silver atoms.” Scientific reports 3 (2013), Haberland, Hellmut, et al. “Filling of micron-sized contact holes with copper by energetic cluster impact.” Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology A 12.5 (1994): 2925-2930, Bromann, Karsten, et al. “Controlled deposition of size-selected silver nanoclusters.” Science 274.5289 (1996): 956-958, Palmer, R. E., S. Pratontep, and H-G. Boyen. “Nanostructured surfaces from size-selected clusters.” Nature Materials 2.7 (2003): 443-448, Shyjumon, I., et al. “Structural deformation, melting point and lattice parameter studies of size selected silver clusters.” The European Physical Journal D-Atomic, Molecular, Optical and Plasma Physics 37.3 (2006): 409-415, Allen, L. P., et al. “Craters on silicon surfaces created by gas cluster ion impacts.” Journal of applied physics 92.7 (2002): 3671-3678, Wucher, Andreas, Hua Tian, and Nicholas Winograd. “A Mixed Cluster Ion Beam to Enhance the Ionization Efficiency in Molecular Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry.” Rapid communications in mass spectrometry: RCM 28.4 (2014): 396-400. PMC. Web. 6 Aug. 2015 and Pratontep, S., et al. “Size-selected cluster beam source based on radio frequency magnetron plasma sputtering and gas condensation.” Review of scientific instruments 76.4 (2005): 045103, each of which is hereby incorporated by reference for its description of nanoparticle generation techniques.

Gas cluster beams can be made when high pressure gas adiabatically expands in a vacuum and cools such that it condenses into clusters. Clusters can also be made ex situ such as C60 and then accelerated towards the graphene.

In some embodiments, the nanoparticles are specially selected to introduce moieties into the graphene. In some embodiments, the nanoparticles function as catalysts. The moieties may be introduced at elevated temperatures, optionally in the presence of a gas. In other embodiments, the nanoparticles introduce “chiseling” moieties, which are moieties that help reduce the amount of energy needed to remove an atom during irradiation.

In some embodiments, the size of the produced pores is controlled by controlling both the nanoparticle size and the nanoparticle energy. Without wishing to be bound by any particular belief, if all the nanoparticles have sufficient energy to perforate, then the resulting pores are believed to correlate with the nanoparticle sizes selected. However, the size of the pore is believed to be influenced by deformation of the nanoparticle during the perforation process. This deformation is believed to be influenced by both the energy and size of the nanoparticle and the stiffness of the graphene layer(s). A grazing angle of incidence of the nanoparticles can also produce deformation of the nanoparticles. In addition, if the nanoparticle energy is controlled, it is believed that nanoparticles can be deposited with a large mass and size distribution, but that a sharp cutoff can still be achieved.

Without wishing to be bound by any particular belief, the mechanism of perforation is believed to be a continuum bound by sputtering on one end (where enough energy is delivered to the graphene sheet to atomize the carbon in and around the NP impact site) and ripping or fracturing (where strain induced failure opens a torn hole but leaves the graphene carbons as part of the original sheet). Part of the graphene layer may fold over at the site of the rip or fracture. In an embodiment the cluster can be reactive so as to aid in the removal of carbon (e.g. an oxygen cluster or having trace amounts of a molecule known to etch carbon in a gas cluster beam i.e. a mixed gas cluster beam). Without wishing to be bound by any particular belief, the stiffness of a graphene layer is believed to be influenced by both the elastic modulus of graphene and the tautness of the graphene. Factors influencing the elastic modulus of a graphene layer are believed to include temperature, defects (either small defects or larger defects from NP irradiation), physisorption, chemisorption and doping. Tautness is believed to be influenced by coefficient of thermal expansion mismatches (e.g. between substrate and graphene layer) during deposition, strain in the graphene layer, wrinkling of the graphene layer. It is believed that strain in a graphene layer can be influenced by a number of factors including application of gas pressure to the backside (substrate side) of a graphene layer, straining of an elastic substrate prior to deposition of graphene, flexing of the substrate during deposition, and defecting the graphene layer in controlled regions to cause the layer to locally contract and increase the local strain.

In some embodiments, nanoparticle perforation can be further controlled by straining the graphene layers during perforation to induce fracture, thereby “ripping” or “tearing” one or more graphene layers. In some embodiments, the stress is directional and used to preferentially fracture in a specific orientation. For example, ripping of one or more graphene sheets can be used to create “slit” shaped apertures; such apertures can be substantially larger than the nanoparticle used to initiate the aperture. In additional embodiments, the stress is not oriented in a particular direction.

In some embodiments, the pores may be functionalized. In some embodiments, the pores are functionalized by exposure to gas during and/or following the perforation process. The exposure to gas may occur at temperatures above room temperature. In some embodiments, the pores can have more than one effective functionalization. For example, when the top and the bottom layers of a graphite stack are exposed to different functionalizing gases, more than one effective functionalization can be produced. In further embodiments, a thin layer of a functionalizing moiety is applied to the surface before NP perforation, during NP perforation and after NP perforation. As compatible with the NP process, the thin layer may be formed by applying a fluid to the surface. In embodiments, the gas pressure is 10⁴ Torr to atmospheric pressure. In embodiments, functionalizing moieties include, but are not limited to water, water vapor, PEG, oxygen, nitrogen, amines, and carboxylic acid.

The preferred gasses for before and during functionalization depend on the reaction of graphene and the gas within the high energy environment of the particle impact. This would be within about 100 nm of the edge of the particle impact. This fits into two general classes, and the gases would be added at a partial pressure of from 1×10⁻⁶ Torr to 1×10⁻³ Torr. The first class would be species that reacts with radicals, carbanions (negative charge centered on a carbon) and carbocations (positive charge centered on a carbon). Representative molecules include carbon dioxide, ethylene oxide and isoprene. The second class would be species that fragment to create species that react with graphene and defective graphene. Representative molecules would be polyethylene glycol, diacytylperoxide, azobisisobutyronitrile, and phenyl diazonium iodide.

In some embodiments, it is desirable and advantageous to perforate multiple graphene sheets at one time rather than perforating single graphene sheets individually, since multi-layer graphene is more robust and less prone to the presence of intrinsic or defects that align through all the layers than is single-layer graphene. In addition, the process is stepwise efficient, since perforated single-layer graphene can optionally be produced by exfoliating the multi-layer graphene after the pore definition process is completed. The pore size is also tailorable in the processes described herein. Thus, the nanoparticle perforation processes described herein are desirable in terms of the number, size and size distribution of pores produced.

The multi-layer graphene subjected to nanoparticle perforation may contain between about 2 stacked graphene sheets and about 20 stacked graphene sheets. Too few graphene sheets may lead to difficulties in handling the graphene as well as an increased incidence of intrinsic or native graphene defects. Having more than about 20 stacked graphene sheets, in contrast, may make it difficult to perforate all of the graphene sheets. In some embodiments, the multilayer sheets may be made by individually growing sheets and making multiple transfers to the same substrate. In some embodiments, the multi-layer graphene perforated by the techniques described herein can have 2 graphene sheets, or 3 graphene sheets, or 4 graphene sheets, or 5 graphene sheets, or 6 graphene sheets, or 7 graphene sheets, or 8 graphene sheets, or 9 graphene sheets, or 10 graphene sheets, or 11 graphene sheets, or 12 graphene sheets, or 13 graphene sheets, or 14 graphene sheets, or 15 graphene sheets, or 16 graphene sheets, or 17 graphene sheets, or 18 graphene sheets, or 19 graphene sheets, or 20 graphene sheets.

The reactants may be applied to the graphene material by any appropriate process. In some embodiments the graphene material may be disposed between liquid solutions or suspensions containing the reactants, and the liquid solutions and suspensions may or may not be flowing past the surfaces of the graphene material. The liquid solutions or suspensions of reactants may be applied to the graphene material by rollers, brushes, spray nozzles, or doctor blades. In some embodiments, the reactants may be applied to the graphene material in droplet form, such as through the use of an inkjet apparatus. In some embodiments a liquid solution or suspension containing a reactant may be disposed on one side of the graphene material and the other side of the graphene material may be exposed to a gas phase reactant.

In some embodiments, the graphene material may be floated on the surface of a liquid suspension or solution containing one of the reactants. The graphene material may be free of a support structure when it is floated on the liquid. In some embodiments, the graphene material may be disposed on a support structure when floated on the liquid, the support structure may include support structures that function to maintain the position of the graphene material on the surface of the liquid and support structures that may be utilized to handle the graphene material after repair. In some embodiments, a mesh material may be employed as a support structure to maintain the graphene material on the surface of the liquid. In some embodiments, a porous polymer may be employed as a support structure that may also be used to handle or manipulate the graphene material after the repair process. In some other embodiments, a support structure including a sacrificial layer that is removed during or after the repair process may be employed.

In some embodiments, the reactants may be applied to an enclosure or envelope including the graphene material. As shown in FIG. 15, an enclosure or envelope including the graphene material may include a lumen 660 that allows access to the interior volume 670 of the enclosure. In a repair process of the graphene material included in the enclosure, the first reactant may be supplied to the interior volume of the enclosure, and the second reactant may be applied to the exterior of the enclosure. The manner of exposing the exterior of the enclosure to the second reactant may include any of the application processes described herein. After the completion of the repair process, the first reactant may be removed from the enclosure and a desired component may be loaded in to the interior space of the enclosure.

The repaired graphene material described herein may be employed in any appropriate process or device. In some embodiments the graphene material may be utilized in filtration devices, such as devices utilized in deionization, reverse osmosis, forward osmosis, contaminant removal, and wastewater treatment processes. The graphene material may also be employed in a biomedical device as a selectively permeable membrane. In some embodiments, the graphene material may be employed in a viral clearance or protein separation process.

The graphene materials described herein may be employed as membranes in water filtration, immune-isolation (i.e., protecting substances from an immune reaction), timed drug release (e.g., sustained or delayed release), hemodialysis, and hemofiltration. The graphene materials described herein may be employed in a method of water filtration, water desalination, water purification, immune-isolation, timed drug release, hemodialysis, or hemofiltration, where the method comprises exposing a membrane to an environmental stimulus.

In some embodiments, methods of filtering water may include passing water through a membrane including the graphene materials described herein. Some embodiments include desalinating or purifying water comprising passing water through a membrane including the graphene materials described herein. The water can be passed through the membrane by any known means, such as by diffusion or gravity filtration, or with applied pressure.

Some embodiments include methods of selectively separating or isolating substances in a biological environment, wherein a membrane including the graphene materials described herein separates or isolates biological substances based on characteristics of the substance, such as size. Such methods can be useful in the context of disease treatment, such as in the treatment of diabetes. In some embodiments, biological substances below a certain size threshold can migrate across the membrane. In some embodiments, even biological substances below the size threshold are excluded from migrating across the membrane due to functionalization of membrane pores and/or channels.

Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used in this description have the same meaning as commonly understood by those skilled in the relevant art.

For convenience, the meaning of certain terms employed in the specification and appended claims are provided below. Other terms and phrases are defined throughout the specification.

The singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” include plural reference unless the context clearly dictates otherwise.

As used herein, the term “about” will be understood by persons of ordinary skill in the art and will vary to some extent depending upon the context in which it is used. If there are uses of the term which are not clear to persons of ordinary skill in the art given the context in which it is used, “about” will mean up to plus or minus 10% of the particular term.

Given the disclosure of the present invention, one versed in the art would appreciate that there may be other embodiments and modifications within the scope and spirit of the invention. Accordingly, all modifications attainable by one versed in the art from the present invention within the scope and spirit of the present invention are to be included as further embodiments of the present invention. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A method comprising: disposing a first reactant on a first side of a two-dimensional material including defects; disposing a second reactant on a second side of the two-dimensional material such that the first reactant and second reactant undergo a polymerization reaction and form polymer regions filling the defects; and adhering the polymer regions to a support structure.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein adhering the polymer regions to the support structure comprises forming covalent bonds between the polymer regions and the support structure.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the adhering the polymer regions to the support structure comprises forming molecular entanglement between the polymer regions and the support structure.
 4. The method of claim 1, further comprising adhering a polymer handling region formed along at least a portion of an edge of the two-dimensional material to the support structure.
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the two-dimensional material comprises graphene.
 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the support structure is a porous support structure.
 7. The method of claim 1, wherein the polymer regions have a thickness in the range of 3 nm to 100 μm.
 8. The method of claim 1, wherein the polymer regions are biocompatible or bio-inert.
 9. The method of claim 1, further comprising treating the support structure to enhance adhesion between the polymer regions and the support structure.
 10. The method of claim 1, wherein the polymer regions are adhered to the support structure such that a distance between adjacent polymer regions is less than a length of the two-dimensional material between the adjacent polymer regions.
 11. The method of claim 1, wherein the polymer regions are adhered to the support structure such that folds are formed in the two-dimensional material.
 12. A method comprising: forming holes in a two-dimensional material including defects; disposing a first reactant on a first side of the two-dimensional material; disposing a second reactant on a second side of the two-dimensional material such that the first reactant and second reactant undergo a polymerization reaction and form polymer regions filling the defects and holes; and adhering the polymer regions to a support structure.
 13. The method of claim 12, wherein the ratio of the area of the holes to the area of the two-dimensional material is in the range of 5% to 50%.
 14. The method of claim 12, wherein the polymer regions have a thickness in the range of 3 nm to 100 μm.
 15. The method of claim 12, wherein the holes are randomly distributed across the two-dimensional material.
 16. The method of claim 12, wherein the holes are arranged in a periodic array.
 17. The method of claim 12, wherein the polymer regions are adhered to the support structure such that a distance between adjacent polymer regions is less than a length of the two-dimensional material between the adjacent polymer regions.
 18. The method of claim 12, wherein the polymer regions are adhered to the support structure such that folds are formed in the two-dimensional material.
 19. A method comprising: forming pores in a two-dimensional material including defects, wherein the defects have a size greater than 15 nm, and the pores have a size that is less than the size of the defects; disposing a first reactant on a first side of the two-dimensional material; and disposing a second reactant on a second side of the two-dimensional material such that the first reactant and second reactant undergo a polymerization reaction and form polymer regions filling the defects; wherein the pores are not filled by the polymer regions.
 20. The method of claim 19, wherein at least one of the first reactant and the second reactant comprises a dendrimer.
 21. The method of claim 19, further comprising applying an electric potential to the two-dimensional material to attract the first reactant and the second reactant to the defects in the graphene material.
 22. The method of claim 19, further comprising heating the first reactant and the second reactant to increase a rate of diffusion thereof and increase a rate of the polymerization reaction.
 23. The method of claim 19, wherein the first reactant is ionic, the second reactant is ionic, and the first and second reactants have opposite charges.
 24. The method of claim 19, further comprising forming holes in the two-dimensional material with a size greater than the size of the pores, such that the holes are filled by polymer regions formed during the polymerization reaction.
 25. A method comprising: disposing a first reactant on a first side of a two-dimensional material and extending beyond at least a portion of an edge of the two-dimensional material; disposing a second reactant on a second side of the two-dimensional material and extending beyond the at least a portion of the edge of the two-dimensional material; wherein the first reactant and second reactant undergo a polymerization reaction and form a polymer handling region at least a portion of the edge of the two-dimensional material.
 26. The method of claim 25, wherein the polymer handling region extends along the entire circumference of the two-dimensional material.
 27. The method of claim 25, wherein the polymer handling region extends from the at least a portion of the edge of the two-dimensional material for a distance of at least about 1 mm.
 28. The method of claim 25, wherein the polymer handling region has a thickness in the range of 3 nm to 100 μm.
 29. A method comprising: disposing a first reactant on a first side of a two-dimensional material containing defects; disposing a second reactant on a second side of the two-dimensional material such that the first reactant and second reactant undergo a polymerization reaction and form polymer regions filling the defects; and forming pores in the two-dimensional material by impacting the two-dimensional material with nanoparticles.
 30. The method of claim 29, wherein the nanoparticles have an energy of 2 keV to 500 keV per nanoparticle.
 31. The method of claim 29, wherein the nanoparticles have a size of 2 nm to 50 nm.
 32. The method of claim 29, wherein the size of the pores is from 1 nm to 100 nm.
 33. The method of claim 29, wherein the fluence of the nanoparticles is 1×10⁸ to 1×10¹² nanoparticles/cm².
 34. The method of claim 29, wherein the two-dimensional material comprises graphene.
 35. A method comprising: forming pores in a two-dimensional material including defects by impacting the two-dimensional material with nanoparticles; disposing a first reactant on a first side of the two-dimensional material; and disposing a second reactant on a second side of the two-dimensional material such that the first reactant and second reactant undergo a polymerization reaction and form polymer regions filling the defects; wherein the pores are not filled by the polymer regions.
 36. The method of claim 35, wherein the nanoparticles have an energy of 2 keV to 500 keV per nanoparticle.
 37. The method of claim 35, wherein the nanoparticles have a size of 2 nm to 50 nm.
 38. The method of claim 35, wherein the size of the pores is from 1 nm to 100 nm.
 39. The method of claim 35, wherein the fluence of the nanoparticles is 1×10⁸ to 1×10¹² nanoparticles/cm².
 40. The method of claim 35, wherein the two-dimensional material comprises graphene.
 41. A membrane assembly, comprising: a two-dimensional material including polymer regions that extend through defects in the two-dimensional material; and a support structure, wherein the polymer regions are adhered to the support structure, and the polymer regions prevent fluid flow through the defects.
 42. The membrane assembly of claim 41, wherein the two-dimensional material comprises graphene.
 43. The membrane assembly of claim 41, wherein the membrane assembly is biocompatible or bio-inert.
 44. The membrane assembly of claim 41, wherein the polymer regions have a thickness of 3 nm to 500 nm.
 45. The membrane assembly of claim 41, wherein the polymer regions are adhered to the support structure through at least one of covalent bonds and molecular entanglement.
 46. The membrane assembly of claim 41, wherein the polymer regions are adhered to the support structure such that a distance between adjacent polymer regions is less than a length of the two-dimensional material between the adjacent polymer regions.
 47. The membrane assembly of claim 41, wherein the polymer regions are adhered to the support structure such that folds are formed in the two-dimensional material.
 48. A membrane, comprising: a two-dimensional material; and a polymer handling region extending along at least a portion of an edge of the two-dimensional material.
 49. The membrane of claim 48, wherein the two-dimensional material comprises graphene.
 50. The membrane of claim 48, wherein membrane is biocompatible or bio-inert.
 51. The membrane of claim 48, wherein the polymer handling region forms a continuous border along the entire circumference of the two-dimensional material.
 52. The membrane of claim 48, wherein the polymer handling region extends from the at least a portion of the edge of the two-dimensional material for a distance of at least about 1 mm. 